Research | Open Access | Volume 9 (3): Article 143 | Published: 08 Sep 2026
Menu, Tables and Figures
Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of study participants in Chato District Council
Table 2: Distribution of H. pylori infection by socio-demographic, behavioral, and environmental characteristics among healthy adult individuals in Chato District Council
Table 3: Univariate and Multivariate Regression Analysis of Factors Associated with H. pylori Infection
Sued Yassin Zuberi1,&, Regan Zenas Shayo2, Gerald Samson Muniko3, Grace Benard Mlingi4, Emanuel Alfred Mkonyi5, Brian Caesar Mawalla6
1Research, Training and Consultancy Unit, Chato Zonal Referral Hospital, Geita, Tanzania, 2Central TB Reference Laboratory, National TB and Leprosy Program – Dodoma – Tanzania, 3Directorate of Medical Services, Chato Zonal Referral Hospital, Geita – Tanzania, 4Pharmaceuticals and Laboratory Services Unit, National AIDS, STIs and Hepatitis Control Programme, Dodoma – Tanzania, 5Programs, MSPH Tanzania LLC – ICAP, Mwanza – Tanzania, 6Directorate of Surgical Services, Chato Zonal Referral Hospital, Geita – Tanzania
&Corresponding author: Sued Yassin Zuberi, Research, Training and Consultancy Unit, Chato Zonal Referral Hospital, Geita, Tanzania, Email: suedmtula@gmail.com ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0007-6952-6827
Received: 25 Mar 2026, Accepted: 04 Sep 2026, Published: 08 Sep 2026
Domain: Infectious Disease Epidemiology
Keywords: Helicobacter pylori, Prevalence, apparently healthy individuals
©Sued Yassin Zuberi et al. Journal of Interventional Epidemiology and Public Health (ISSN: 2664-2824). This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution International 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Cite this article: Sued Yassin Zuberi et al., Prevalence and factors associated with Helicobacter pylori infection among apparently healthy adults in Chato District Council, Tanzania. Journal of Interventional Epidemiology and Public Health. 2026; 9(03):143. https://doi.org/10.37432/jieph-d-26-00097
Introduction: Although the prevalence of Helicobacter pylori has declined globally, it remains significant in developing countries. In Africa, most prevalence data come from patients with gastroduodenal symptoms, which may overestimate infection in the general population. Therefore, this study assessed the prevalence of H. pylori and associated risk factors in the general population.
Methods: A hospital-based analytical cross-sectional study was conducted at selected healthcare facilities in Chato District Council, Geita; Tanzania from January to April 2025. A structured questionnaire was used to elicit the socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of the study participants. Data analysis was done by using STATA version 15.0 software (College Station, Texas, USA). Independent factors/determinants for H. pylori infection were determined by multivariate logistic regression analysis using odds ratios, 95% confidence intervals and a p-value cut-off of less than 0.05.
Results: A total of 386 apparently healthy adults were enrolled, with a median age of 31 years (IQR: 24–40); 222 (57.5%) were female. Most participants were engaged in agriculture and fishing (259; 67.1%) and had at most a primary education (257; 66.6%). The prevalence of H. pylori infection was 35.5%. In the multivariable analysis, participants engaged in agriculture and fishing had lower odds of H. pylori infection compared with informal workers (aPOR=0.6, 95% CI: 0.36–0.96; p=0.033), while household size, animal contact and gastrointestinal symptoms were not significantly associated with infection.
Conclusion: This study identified a substantial burden of asymptomatic H. pylori infection among apparently healthy adults in Chato District Council. Agriculture and fishing occupations were independently associated with lower odds of infection compared with informal occupations. Community-based studies are warranted to confirm this finding and further explore factors associated with H. pylori infection.
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a gram-negative bacterium that infects the gastric epithelial lining in humans [1]. H. pylori infection is believed to be acquired early in life and is associated with various gastrointestinal diseases, including chronic gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, gastric adenocarcinoma, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma [1,2]. H. pylori infection is a global public health concern with estimates demonstrating that more than half of those infected reside in developing countries [3,4]. Likewise, H. pylori infection is thought to be responsible for 89% of all stomach malignancies [5].
Data show that colonization with H. pylori has grown less common in Western-world populations, and in some developed nations, the frequency has fallen below 20% [6]. This decline has been attributed to improvements in socioeconomic and educational status, particularly in sanitation and general living conditions [7]. Nevertheless, in Africa, the prevalence of H. pylori can reach 80%, due to factors such as overcrowding, having infected siblings or parents, lack of proper sanitation, basic hygiene, poor diets and drinking contaminated water [8]. Other studies indicate that the prevalence among healthy people exceeds 50%, whereas it approaches 90% among dyspeptic patients [9]. In Tanzania, more than 65% of dyspeptic patients are infected with H. pylori [10]. In a similar study that estimated the sero-prevalence of H. pylori, positivity was noted in 92% of the patients [11].
Available data show that the vast majority of H. pylori prevalence data reported comprise patients presenting with gastroduodenal symptoms [4,12]. Given that H. pylori has been established as the primary cause of gastrointestinal diseases, using data from such research might exaggerate H. pylori prevalence [8]. This highlights a substantial gap in data regarding the prevalence of H. pylori in the general population across Africa.
The precise modalities and routes of H. pylori infection transmission remain unknown. However, in most regions, intra-familial transmission appears to be the primary mode of infection [13]. Consequently, there is evidence that occupation may contribute significantly to the transmission of H. pylori [14]. Systematic reviews have found that health professionals as well as agricultural, forestry, and fishing workers, sanitation workers, mine workers and workers at mentally handicapped facilities, have a greater frequency of H. pylori infection than the overall population though the disparities are less evident [14]. Evidence from studies indicates that the prevalence of H. pylori varies by demographic and environmental factors, including age group, gender, place of residence, ethnicity, and ecological region [15]. Despite these variations, only a few studies in Tanzania have reported on the prevalence of H. pylori infections across different populations.
Study setting
Chato District is one of the five districts of Geita Region, with its administrative centre in the town of Chato. The district is surrounded by Lake Victoria to the northeast, Geita District to the east, Mbogwe District and Bukombe District to the south, and Biharamulo District to the west and north. In 2022, the district was home to 584,963 people, nearly equally split between 286,138 men and 298,825 women [16]. Chato district is home to the Sukuma, the largest ethnic group in the area. The major economic activities include fishing and agriculture. In 2022, the district had 47 healthcare facilities: two hospitals, eight health centres, and 37 dispensaries. The hospitals include Chato District Hospital (CDH), which serves as the district hospital for Chato District Council, and Chato Zonal Referral Hospital (CZRH), which functions as a Zonal Referral Hospital. This study was carried out at both facilities. The CDH has an Outpatient Department that serves nearly 150 patients a day, whereas CZRH serves around 200 patients a day. The number of participants selected from each facility was determined using a probability proportional to size sampling approach, ensuring that the sample reflected the relative size of the patient population at each site.
Study design, population and period
A hospital-based analytical cross-sectional study was carried out at CDH and CZRH from January to April 2025. The study population consisted of healthy adult relatives accompanying patients attending various hospital departments including outpatient clinics, inpatient wards and diagnostic service areas. These individuals were not seeking medical care themselves and were considered apparently healthy at the time of recruitment. Eligible participants were aged 18 years and above, had unknown H. Pylori infection status, and had not used antibiotics, proton pump inhibitors or bismuth preparations in the past two weeks. Information on gastrointestinal symptoms and other risk factors was collected through interviews and analyzed as study variables.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
All consenting healthy adult patients’ relatives aged 18 years and above with unknown status of H. pylori infection were recruited for the study. Likewise, participants with unknown status of H. pylori infection but have used antibiotics, proton pump inhibitors or bismuth compounds in the past two weeks were excluded.
Sample size
A total sample of 386 participants were recruited for the study. The required sample size was determined using the Kish-Leshone formula based on the prevalence of 39.1% for H. pylori infection among dyspeptic patients in Mwanza, Tanzania [17] using a margin of error of 5%, a 95% confidence interval and a non-response rate of 5%. The initial sample size was calculated as:
\[ n = \frac{Z^2 P(1-P)}{d^2} \]
Where: n=required sample size, Z=1.96 corresponding to a 95% confidence level, P=0.391 (39.1%) prevalence of H. pylori infection and d=0.05 (desired precision).
Substituting these values yielded a minimum sample size of 366 participants. To account for a potential non-response rate of 5%, the sample size was adjusted as follows:
Adjusted (n) =n/(1-0.05), resulting in a final sample size of 386 participants.
Sampling method
Participant recruitment was conducted daily in waiting areas and visitor spaces of selected departments at CDH and CZRH including outpatient clinics, inpatient wards and diagnostic units. Research assistants approached study participants accompanying patients and screened them for eligibility. After obtaining informed consent, eligible participants were selected using a systematic random sampling approach. Each day, the first participant was randomly chosen from the first three healthy adult relatives of patients. Subsequent participants were then enrolled by selecting every second eligible individual. This process was repeated daily until the target sample size was reached.
Study variables
The dependent variable was having H. pylori infection or not. The independent variables included: age, sex, housing, level of education, marital status, number of members in a household, drinking water, occupation, smoking, family history of peptic ulcer, hygienic practices, and contact with domestic animals
Data collection
Data on participants’ socio-demographic details and exposure status were gathered by trained nurses through a structured questionnaire. Before the commencement of the study, the research assistants were oriented on the research protocol, data collection methods, ethical considerations, confidentiality protocols, and any specific skills or procedures required for the study. This ensured that the research assistants understood their roles and responsibilities, adhered to ethical guidelines, and conducted data collection accurately.
Samples collection and laboratory procedure
Stool sample collection
Participants received a clean, dry plastic container for stool collection, along with detailed guidance from a trained nurse or medical laboratory staff on how to properly provide the sample. Samples were transported under controlled temperatures of 2ºC-8ºC and delivered to the laboratory at CZRH for processing and analysis.
Detection of H. pylori in stool samples
H. pylori rapid testing was performed using the Laborex H. pylori Antigen test kit (Laborex, Milan, Italy) following the manufacturer’s instructions [18]. The test is a lateral-flow immunochromatographic assay that utilizes monoclonal antibodies to detect H. pylori in human stool specimens. Recent studies have demonstrated that stool antigen assays have high diagnostic accuracy, with sensitivity and specificity exceeding 95% and 99%, respectively [19]. The membrane strip is pre-coated with H. pylori-specific capture monoclonal antibodies. In the presence of H. pylori antigens, antigen-antibody complexes form and produce a visible coloured line in the test region. A control line is included to verify proper test performance and procedural validity. All stool samples were analyzed by laboratory scientists at CZRH.
Quality control
Samples with known positive and negative reactivity were used to confirm the test procedure and verify that the assay was functioning properly. To minimise bias, the results were interpreted independently by two qualified readers. The findings were then reviewed and verified by the principal investigator before being finalized.
Data analysis
The data were first checked for completeness and consistency before analysis. Statistical analysis was performed using STATA version 15.0 (College Station, Texas, USA). The proportion of healthy adult individuals infected with H. pylori was calculated. Univariate logistic regression was initially conducted for all variables, and those with a p-value of ≤ 0.25 were included in the multivariate logistic regression model. Factors independently associated with H. pylori infection were identified using both univariate and multivariate logistic regression, with results reported as odds ratios, 95% confidence intervals, and a significance threshold of p < 0.05.
Ethical considerations
The study received ethical approval from the National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), reference number NIMR/HQ/R.8a/Vol.IX/4603. In addition, the management teams of CDH and CZRH granted permission to carry out the study at their facilities. Participants provided informed consent before enrollment, with assistance given to those unable to read or write. Any findings that could benefit the patient were communicated to them and/or the attending physician. All information was kept confidential, with hard copies stored in a locked cupboard and electronic data protected by passwords.
Socio-demographic characteristics of study participants
A total of 386 healthy adult individuals were enrolled in the study with a median age of 31 years and an interquartile range of 24–40 years. Of these, 222 (57.5%) were females. The majority of participants were engaged in agriculture and fishing (259; 67.1%), while 127 (32.9%) reported other forms of employment. Regarding marital status, 259 (67.1%) were married, and 127 (32.9%) were single. In terms of education, most participants had less than primary education (257; 66.6%), while 129 (33.4%) had attained secondary education or above (Table 1).
Prevalence of H. pylori infection among Healthy Adult Individuals in Chato District Council
The prevalence of H. pylori infection among study participants was 35.5%. There were no statistically significant associations between H. pylori infection and sex or age group. Household size was significantly associated with H. pylori infection (p = 0.016), with the highest prevalence observed among participants from households with ≥10 members. Participants with animal contact and those using unboiled tap, river or lake water had slightly higher prevalence of infection than their respective reference groups; however, these associations were not statistically significant (Table 2).
Determinants of H. pylori Infection: Univariate and Multivariate Analysis among Healthy Adult Individuals
In the univariate analysis, occupation, household size, animal contact and gastrointestinal symptoms were considered for inclusion in the multivariable model based on a p-value ≤0.25. Participants engaged in agriculture and fishing had lower odds of H. pylori infection compared with informal workers, although this association was not statistically significant (cPOR=0.7, 95% CI: 0.45–1.12, p=0.143). Similarly, formal workers had lower odds of infection compared with informal workers, although the association was also not statistically significant (cPOR=0.5, 95% CI: 0.17–1.49, p=0.213). With regard to household size, participants living in households with 4–6 members had lower odds of infection compared with those living in households with 1–3 members (cPOR=0.6, 95% CI: 0.33–1.14, p=0.124), whereas those living in households with ≥10 members had higher odds of infection, although this association was not statistically significant (cPOR=1.8, 95% CI: 0.82–3.88, p=0.147). Furthermore, animal contact was not significantly associated with H. pylori infection (cPOR=1.4, 95% CI: 0.89–2.06, p=0.156).
After adjustment, occupation remained significantly associated with H. pylori infection. Participants engaged in agriculture and fishing had lower odds of infection compared with those in informal occupations (aPOR=0.6, 95% CI: 0.36–0.96, p=0.033). In contrast, household size was not statistically significantly associated with H. pylori infection after adjustment (overall p=0.051). Compared with participants living in households with 1–3 members, those living in households with 4–6 members had lower odds of infection (aPOR=0.6, 95% CI: 0.32–1.15, p=0.129), while those living in households with 7–9 members had similar odds (aPOR=1.0, 95% CI: 0.51–1.90, p=0.957) and those living in households with ≥10 members had higher odds (aPOR=1.6, 95% CI: 0.69–3.70, p=0.277). However, none of the category-specific associations for household size was statistically significant. Similarly, animal contact was not significantly associated with H. pylori infection after adjustment (aPOR=1.3, 95% CI: 0.83–2.16, p=0.233), and gastrointestinal symptoms were also not significantly associated with infection (aPOR=0.7, 95% CI: 0.45–1.06, p=0.089) (Table 3).
The study explored the burden of H. pylori infection and the factors associated with infection among apparently healthy adult individuals in Chato District Council. The findings demonstrate that H. pylori infection remains present among apparently healthy individuals in the community, highlighting the occurrence of infection among individuals without necessarily seeking care for gastrointestinal illness. This pattern aligns with global and regional evidence showing that a significant proportion of H. pylori infections are asymptomatic and widely distributed in populations with shared environmental exposures. Studies from across Africa have documented high prevalence rates, often varying by setting, with rural and lower-resource populations showing particularly elevated infection levels [8,19].
The prevalence of H. pylori infection observed in this study is consistent with reports from other African settings, indicating that the infection is common across diverse populations. A systematic review and meta-analysis from East Africa noted that more than half of surveyed populations tested positive for H. pylori, with variability driven by living conditions and environmental exposures such as source of drinking water and rural residence [20]. Nonetheless, the prevalence observed in this study was lower than the pooled estimate reported in the meta-analysis. This difference may reflect variations in study populations, as many studies included in the review were conducted among symptomatic individuals or mixed populations, whereas the present study focused on apparently healthy adults. In addition, the studies included in the meta-analysis employed different diagnostic methods and were conducted across diverse geographic settings and time periods, all of which may influence prevalence estimates. Studies across sub-Saharan settings, including Ghana and Nigeria, have likewise pointed to high prevalence driven by similar socio-environmental determinants, despite differing diagnostic approaches and sampling strategies [19,20].
In Tanzania, higher prevalence has previously been reported among dyspeptic patients attending a tertiary hospital in northern Tanzania [10]. The difference may be explained by variations in study populations, as that study enrolled symptomatic patients undergoing gastrointestinal evaluation, whereas the present study involved apparently healthy adults. Furthermore, the studies were conducted more than a decade apart, during which improvements in sanitation, access to safe water, healthcare services, and living conditions may have influenced transmission patterns and contributed to differences in prevalence.
Household size was not statistically significantly associated with H. pylori infection after adjustment, although the observed pattern suggested variation in infection across household categories. Larger households have previously been associated with H. pylori transmission, with poor sanitation, inadequate access to clean water and household crowding repeatedly implicated as potential facilitators of transmission [21]. For instance, water sources other than treated piped supplies and overcrowded living conditions were significantly associated with infection in several rural African settings, underscoring the role of faecal–oral transmission in environments with limited sanitation infrastructure [22]. The observation that household crowding increases the likelihood of transmission is also supported by research showing that family contact and dense living spaces enhance infection spread, likely due to closer interpersonal interactions and shared use of household items [23].
Although the use of unboiled tap, river or lake water was not significantly associated with H. pylori infection in this study, previous studies have reported higher infection rates among individuals relying on untreated or non-piped water sources. Water contamination has been proposed as a key transmission pathway, particularly where water treatment is inadequate and hygiene practices are limited [23,24]. Studies, for example, reported that children lacking formal pipe or borehole water access had higher infection rates, further supporting the relevance of water quality as a determinant [21,24] The absence of a significant association in this study may reflect differences in local environmental conditions, water handling practices or other unmeasured factors influencing transmission.
The significant association observed between occupation and H. pylori infection, particularly among individuals engaged in agriculture and fishing, differs from findings reported in some previous studies. In Egypt, Salem et al. reported a significantly higher prevalence of H. pylori infection among farmers than non-farmers among patients with dyspepsia [25]. Similarly, other studies have reported associations between farming and manual outdoor occupations and H. pylori infection, potentially reflecting greater exposure to environmental sources and limited access to improved hygiene facilities [14,25,26]. The lower odds of infection observed among agriculture and fishing workers in the present study may be due to differences in socioeconomic conditions, sanitation, water sources, hygiene practices or other factors that were not measured. The wide range of occupations included in the informal occupation group may also have influenced this finding. Further studies are needed to determine the reasons for the different findings across settings.
The lack of association between certain demographic characteristics (including age and sex) and H. pylori infection in this study reflects mixed findings in the literature. Some studies in Africa have reported age-related increases in infection or sex differences, while others including community surveys, have not observed these associations, suggesting that once exposure is widespread, demographic differences may have less influence than environmental and household factors [22,27]. Likewise, the absence of a significant association between gastrointestinal symptoms and infection supports the well-established understanding that many H. pylori carriers remain asymptomatic, which facilitates silent persistence and continued transmission in communities [8].
Together, these findings highlight the potential importance of environmental sanitation, water safety and household living conditions in efforts to reduce H. pylori transmission. Interventions aimed at improving access to safe drinking water, enhancing hygiene practices and reducing household overcrowding may have broad benefits not only for H. pylori but also for overall community health. Despite the cross-sectional nature of this study limiting causal interpretations, the patterns observed are supported by evidence from other African settings and align with recognized pathways of H. pylori transmission.
Limitations
This study has several limitations. First, the cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish temporal relationships between the identified factors and H. pylori infection. Second, participants were recruited from two health facilities in Chato District Council; therefore, the findings may not be fully representative of the general population, limiting generalizability and introducing the possibility of selection bias. Likewise, participants were recruited from health-facility attendees’ relatives rather than through community-based sampling; therefore, prevalence estimates may differ from those of the general population. Additionally, although several socio-demographic and environmental factors were assessed, some potentially important variables such as household income and detailed sanitation conditions were not measured, which may have resulted in residual confounding. This may be particularly relevant to the observed association between occupation and H. pylori infection, as differences in socioeconomic conditions, sanitation, water sources and hygiene practices between occupational groups were not fully assessed. Finally, information on environmental and behavioural exposures was self-reported and may have been subject to recall bias.
This study found that more than one-third of apparently healthy adults in Chato District Council were infected with H. pylori, indicating a substantial burden of infection within the study population. Agriculture and fishing occupations were independently associated with lower odds of infection. Given the facility-based nature of the study, community-based investigations are needed to confirm these findings and further explore factors associated with H. pylori infection in the wider population.
What is already known about the topic
What this study adds
The authors thank the study participants, research assistants (Happness Sospeter and Sylivester Kahulu) of Chato Zonal Referral as well as the management of Chato Zonal Referral Hospital and Office of the Executive Director of Chato District Council for their cooperation and support during the study.
Conceptualization: Sued Yassin Zuberi, Regan Zenas Shayo, Gerald Samson Muniko, Grace Benard Mlingi, Emanuel Alfred Mkonyi, Brian Caesar Mawalla
Data curation: Sued Yassin Zuberi, Regan Zenas Shayo, Gerald Samson Muniko, Grace Benard Mlingi, Emanuel Alfred Mkonyi, Brian Caesar Mawalla
Formal analysis: Sued Yassin Zuberi, Regan Zenas Shayo, Gerald Samson Muniko, Grace Benard Mlingi, Emanuel Alfred Mkonyi, Brian Caesar Mawalla
Validation: Regan Zenas Shayo
Supervision: Brian Caesar Mawalla
Writing – original draft: Sued Yassin Zuberi
Writing – review & editing: Sued Yassin Zuberi, Regan Zenas Shayo, Gerald Samson Muniko, Grace Benard Mlingi, Emanuel Alfred Mkonyi, Brian Caesar Mawalla
| Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of study participants in Chato District Council | ||
|---|---|---|
| Variable | Frequency | Percentage |
| Sex | ||
| Male | 164 | 42.5 |
| Female | 222 | 57.5 |
| Occupation | ||
| Informal | 108 | 27.9 |
| Agriculture & Fishing | 259 | 67.1 |
| Formal | 19 | 4.9 |
| Marital status | ||
| Single | 127 | 32.9 |
| Married | 259 | 67.1 |
| Education Level | ||
| ≤ Primary | 257 | 66.6 |
| ≥ Secondary | 129 | 33.4 |
| Table 2: Distribution of H. pylori infection by socio-demographic, behavioral, and environmental characteristics among healthy adult individuals in Chato District Council | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Variable | H. pylori | P-value | |
| Positive n (%) | Negative n (%) | ||
| Sex | 0.795 | ||
| Female | 80(36.0) | 142 (64.0) | |
| Male | 57 (34.8) | 107 (65.2) | |
| Occupation | 0.234 | ||
| Informal | 45(41.7) | 63(58.3) | |
| Agriculture & Fishing | 87(33.6) | 172(66.4) | |
| Formal | 5(26.3) | 14(73.7) | |
| Age group | 0.762 | ||
| 18-39 | 101(35.9) | 180(64.1) | |
| 40+ | 36(34.3) | 69(65.7) | |
| Marital status | 0.638 | ||
| Single | 43(33.9) | 84(66.1) | |
| Married | 94(36.3) | 165 (63.7) | |
| History of cigarette smoking | 0.452 | ||
| No | 126(35.0) | 234(65.0) | |
| Yes | 11(42.3) | 15(57.7) | |
| Education | 0.281 | ||
| ≤ Primary | 96(37.4) | 161(62.6) | |
| ≥Secondary | 41(31.8) | 88(68.2) | |
| Members in a household | 0.016 | ||
| 1-3 | 24(38.1) | 39(61.9) | |
| 4-6 | 42(27.5) | 111(72.5) | |
| 7-9 | 48(38.1) | 78(61.9) | |
| ≥10 | 23(52.3) | 21(47.7) | |
| Family history of H. pylori infection | 0.673 | ||
| No | 107(35.0) | 199(65.0) | |
| Yes | 30(37.5) | 50(62.5) | |
| Contact with animals | 0.156 | ||
| No | 59(31.9) | 126(68.1) | |
| Yes | 78(38.8) | 123(61.2) | |
| Poultry | 0.328 | ||
| Never | 14(29.2) | 34(70.8) | |
| Often/Sometime | 123(36.4) | 215(63.6) | |
| Water Source | 0.724 | ||
| Boiled/bottled | 26(33.8) | 51(66.2) | |
| Tap/River/Lake | 111(35.9) | 198(64.1) | |
| GI symptoms | 0.071 | ||
| No | 77(39.9) | 116(60.1) | |
| Yes | 60(31.1) | 133(68.9) | |
| Table 3: Univariate and Multivariate Regression Analysis of Factors Associated with H. pylori Infection | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable | H. Pylori | Univariate | Multivariable | |||
| Positive n(%) | Negative n(%) | cPOR (95% CI) | P-value | aPOR (95% CI) | P-value | |
| Sex | ||||||
| Female | 80(36.0) | 142 (64.0) | Ref | |||
| Male | 57 (34.8) | 107 (65.2) | 0.9(0.62-1.44) | 0.795 | ||
| Occupation | ||||||
| Informal | 45(41.7) | 63(58.3) | Ref | Ref | ||
| Agriculture & Fishing | 87(33.6) | 172(66.4) | 0.7(0.45-1.12) | 0.143 | 0.6(0.36-0.96) | 0.033 |
| Formal | 5(26.3) | 14(73.7) | 0.5(0.17-1.49) | 0.213 | 0.5(0.17-1.59) | 0.256 |
| Age (years) | ||||||
| 18-39 | 101(35.9) | 180(64.1) | Ref | |||
| 40+ | 36(34.3) | 69(65.7) | 0.9(0.58-1.49) | 0.762 | ||
| Marital status | ||||||
| Married | 94(36.3) | 165 (63.7) | Ref | |||
| Single | 43(33.9) | 84(66.1) | 0.9(0.58-1.40) | 0.638 | ||
| History of cigarette smoking | ||||||
| No | 126(35.0) | 234(65.0) | Ref | |||
| Yes | 11(42.3) | 15(57.7) | 1.4(0.61-3.05) | 0.452 | ||
| Education Level | ||||||
| ≤ Primary | 96(37.4) | 161(62.6) | Ref | |||
| ≥Secondary | 41(31.8) | 88(68.2) | 0.8(0.49-1.22) | 0.281 | ||
| Members in a household | ||||||
| 1-3 | 24(38.1) | 39(61.9) | Ref | Ref | ||
| 4-6 | 42(27.5) | 111(72.5) | 0.6(0.33-1.14) | 0.124 | 0.6(0.32-1.15) | 0.129 |
| 7-9 | 48(38.1) | 78(61.9) | 1.0(0.54-1.86) | 1.000 | 1.0(0.51-1.90) | 0.957 |
| ≥10 | 23(52.3) | 21(47.7) | 1.8(0.82-3.88) | 0.147 | 1.6(0.69-3.70) | 0.277 |
| Family History of H. pylori Infection | ||||||
| No | 107(35.0) | 199(65.0) | Ref | |||
| Yes | 30(37.5) | 50(62.5) | 1.1(0.67-1.86) | 0.673 | ||
| Animal contact | ||||||
| No | 59(31.9) | 126(68.1) | Ref | Ref | ||
| Yes | 78(38.8) | 123(61.2) | 1.4(0.89-2.06) | 0.156 | 1.3(0.83-2.16) | 0.233 |
| Water Source | ||||||
| Bottled/Boiled | 26(33.8) | 51(66.2) | Ref | |||
| Unboiled tap Water/river /lakes | 111(35.9) | 198(64.1) | 1.1(0.65-1.86) | 0.724 | ||
| Poultry | ||||||
| Never | 14(29.2) | 34(70.8) | Ref | |||
| Often/sometimes | 123(36.4) | 215(63.6) | 1.4(0.72-2.69) | 0.328 | ||
| GI symptoms | ||||||
| No | 77(39.9) | 116(60.1) | Ref | Ref | ||
| Yes | 60(31.1) | 133(68.9) | 0.7(0.45-1.03) | 0.071 | 0.7(0.45-1.06) | 0.089 |
cPOR – Crude Prevalence Odds Ratio, aPOR – Adjusted Prevalence Odds Ratio