Research | Open Access | Volume 9 (4): Article 180 | Published: 06 Nov 2026
Menu, Tables and Figures
Table 1: Comparison of demographic and obstetric factors of HIV-positive and HIV-negative maternal deaths
Table 2: Comparison of clinical conditions in HIV positive and HIV negative maternal deaths
Claudia Mbapaha1,&, Yoseph Worku2, Hans Justus Amukugo3, Ester Mulenga4
1Department of General Nursing, University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia, 2Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, St. Paul’s Hospital Millennium Medical College, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 3Department of General Nursing. University of Namibia.Windhoek, Namibia, 4Department of Midwifery Science, University of Namibia.Windhoek, Namibia
&Corresponding author: Claudia Mbapaha, Department of General Nursing, University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia, Email: cmbapaha@unam.na ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0007-4245-8836
Received: 15 Jun 2026, Accepted: 02 Nov 2026, Published: 06 Nov 2026
Domain: Maternal and Child Health
Keywords: maternal mortality, HIV, obstetric sepsis, and clinical conditions
©Claudia Mbapaha et al. Journal of Interventional Epidemiology and Public Health (ISSN: 2664-2824). This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution International 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Cite this article: Claudia Mbapaha et al. Demographic, obstetric, and clinical characteristics of maternal deaths in Namibia by HIV Status. Journal of Interventional Epidemiology and Public Health. 2026; 9(4):180. https://doi.org/10.37432/jieph-d-26-00186
Introduction: Maternal mortality remains a major public health concern in low- and middle-income countries, with women living with HIV at increased risk of adverse outcomes. In Namibia, HIV contributes substantially to maternal deaths despite ongoing interventions. The study aimed to compare demographic, obstetric and clinical profiles among HIV-positive and HIV-negative women who experienced maternal death in selected referral hospitals in Namibia.
Methods: A retrospective cross-sectional audit of maternal death records was conducted across four referral hospitals from January 2018 to December 2022. Data were extracted from 77 eligible records using a structured checklist. Descriptive statistics summarised the characteristics of HIV-positive and HIV-negative women who died. Simple binary logistic regression estimated crude odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals for associations between these characteristics and HIV status.
Results: Significant differences were observed in maternal age distribution (p=0.045), antenatal care attendance (p=0.028), mode of delivery (p=0.002), and place of delivery (p= 0.001). HIV-positive women were more likely to have fewer antenatal care visits and to deliver at home. Abortive outcomes (p=0.006) and obstetric sepsis (p=0.031) were significantly higher among HIV-positive women. No significant differences were found for hypertensive disorders or obstetric haemorrhage.
Conclusion: Among women who experienced maternal death in four Namibian referral hospitals, HIV-positive women differed from HIV-negative women in antenatal care attendance, place of delivery, abortive outcomes, and obstetric sepsis. These exploratory associations identify priorities for further investigation and programme review, including antenatal care utilisation, facility-based delivery, and infection prevention and management. Strengthening antenatal care utilisation, promoting facility-based deliveries, and improving infection prevention and management could reduce maternal mortality among women living with HIV.
Maternal mortality remains a major public health challenge globally, with approximately 99% of maternal deaths occurring in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), reflecting persistent inequities in access to quality maternal healthcare services [1]. The leading causes of maternal death worldwide include postpartum haemorrhage, obstetric sepsis, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, complications of childbirth, and unsafe abortion, accounting for nearly three-quarters of all maternal deaths [2]. Despite progress in maternal health programmes, Namibia continues to report a maternal mortality ratio of 139 per 100,000 live births, highlighting the need for strengthened interventions to improve maternal outcomes [3].
HIV infection remains an important contributor to maternal mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. Women living with HIV are at increased risk of adverse maternal outcomes because of immunosuppression, opportunistic infections, and co-existing medical conditions. In Namibia, findings from the Confidential Enquiry into Maternal Deaths identified HIV as a major indirect cause of maternal mortality, contributing to 28.3% of maternal deaths [4]. Similarly, previous studies have reported a substantial burden of maternal deaths among HIV-positive women during pregnancy and the postpartum period [5].
Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa consistently demonstrates higher maternal mortality among women living with HIV compared with HIV-negative women [6]. Studies have shown that HIV-positive women experience a two- to ten-fold increased risk of death during pregnancy and the postpartum period [7–10]. HIV contributes to maternal mortality through both direct and indirect pathways, including increased susceptibility to tuberculosis, pneumonia, sepsis, anaemia, haemorrhage, and other pregnancy-related complications [6,9,11]. The World Health Organization classifies maternal deaths among women with HIV as resulting from both direct obstetric causes and indirect causes related to HIV infection [12].
Maternal sepsis remains one of the leading direct causes of maternal mortality globally and disproportionately affects women living with HIV [2,10]. HIV-positive women have been reported to be more than three times as likely to develop puerperal sepsis compared with HIV-negative women [13]. Other important causes of maternal death among women living with HIV include obstetric haemorrhage, ectopic pregnancy, anaemia, and complications arising from unsafe abortion [11,14,15].
In addition, indirect causes such as AIDS, Tuberculosis, Malaria, and Pneumonia continue to contribute substantially to maternal mortality in high HIV-burden settings [16,17]. Studies conducted in Uganda and other African countries have shown that HIV/AIDS contributes substantially to maternal mortality, particularly among women aged 30 years and older, those with limited antenatal care attendance, and those who underwent caesarean delivery [18]. Similarly, other researchers observed higher maternal mortality among women aged 25–35 years, with a considerable proportion occurring among HIV-infected women who had not attended antenatal care services [10].
Although antiretroviral therapy (ART) has significantly reduced HIV-related morbidity and mortality, maternal mortality among women living with HIV remains a public health concern [10]. Persistent barriers to accessing quality maternal healthcare, delayed recognition of complications, and inadequate management of obstetric and HIV-related conditions continue to adversely affect maternal outcomes adversely. However, limited evidence exists in Namibia comparing the demographic, obstetric, and clinical characteristics of HIV-positive and HIV-negative women who experience maternal death.
This study compared demographic characteristics, obstetric factors, and clinical conditions among HIV-positive and HIV-negative maternal deaths recorded in selected referral hospitals in Namibia between 2018 and 2022. The findings are intended to inform targeted interventions aimed at reducing maternal mortality and strengthening the integration of HIV and maternal healthcare services.
Study design and setting
A retrospective cross-sectional audit of maternal death records was conducted in four referral hospitals in Namibia: Intermediate Hospital Katutura, Windhoek Central Hospital, Intermediate Hospital Oshakati, and Rundu Intermediate Hospital. These hospitals serve as major referral centres for obstetric and specialised maternal healthcare services in the country. The study reviewed maternal deaths that occurred over a five-year period from January 2018 to December 2022.
Study population
The study population included all maternal deaths recorded at the selected hospitals during the study period that met the national Maternal Death Review (MDR) criteria. According to the MDR guidelines, a maternal death is defined as the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration or site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management. Deaths resulting from abortion and ectopic pregnancy were included [19].
Data collection
Maternal death records were retrieved from maternity wards, audit units, and medical records departments within the selected hospitals. Data were extracted using a structured checklist. The checklist consisted of five sections: demographic variables (maternal age and marital status); obstetric profile (gravidity, parity, gestational age, antenatal care, hypertensive disease of pregnancy, abortion history, mode of delivery, duration of labour, place of delivery, postnatal complication, obstetric sepsis); clinical conditions (haemoglobin level, comorbidities such as tuberculosis, cardiac, hepatic, and respiratory conditions); HIV-related variables (HIV status, initiation and duration of ART, viral load, CD4 count, and isoniazid prophylaxis); and death-related variables (place and time of death).
Missing data were handled using complete case analysis, whereby cases with missing values for specific variables were excluded from analyses involving those variables. For instance, variables with >40% missing data (viral load, CD4 count, and isoniazid prophylaxis) were not included in comparative analyses.
Data analysis
Data were initially entered, coded, and cleaned in Microsoft Excel (Office 365), then exported to IBM SPSS version 29 for final analysis. Simple binary logistic regression was conducted to compare sociodemographic, obstetric, and clinical characteristics between HIV-positive and HIV-negative maternal deaths. Due to the relatively small sample size and the presence of missing data, multiple regression analysis was not performed. To quantify the magnitude of associations between independent and dependent variables, crude odds ratios (COR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated. The statistical significance level was set at p < 0.05.
Given the exploratory nature of this study and the multiple comparisons performed, the results should be interpreted cautiously. We did not adjust the significance level for multiple comparisons because of the exploratory nature of the analysis and the relatively small sample size, which would further reduce statistical power. However, the p-values reported should be interpreted with caution, and findings with borderline statistical significance (p between 0.01 and 0.05) should be considered as suggestive rather than definitive.
Ethical considerations
Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Namibia Research Ethics Committee (Reference: SON601/2020) and the Ministry of Health and Social Services (Reference: 17/3/3/CM). All data were anonymised before analysis, and confidentiality was maintained throughout the study.
A total of 105 maternal death records were initially identified. Of these, 26 records were excluded due to incomplete or insufficient documentation. This left 79 records; however, two additional maternal death records were excluded due to missing documentation of HIV status. The final sample comprised 77 maternal death records that met the inclusion criteria from four public referral hospitals, namely Intermediate Hospital Oshakati, Rundu and Katutura and Windhoek Central Hospital. Table 1 indicates the comparison of demographic and obstetric factors for HIV-positive and HIV negative maternal deaths.
HIV-related clinical data were incompletely documented among the 37 HIV-positive women. ART initiation was documented for 22 women, and 15 had received ART for more than 12 months. CD4 count data were available for 11 women, with a median of 312 cells/mm³ (IQR: 189–456). Viral load data were available for nine women; five had viral suppression (<1,000 copies/mL). ART initiation and duration, viral load, CD4 count, and isoniazid prophylaxis were collected from available records, but substantial missing data prevented statistical comparisons for these variables.
Descriptive statistics with frequency distributions were used to summarise raw data, highlighting the frequency (counts) and percentages of demographic and obstetric factors among HIV-positive and HIV-negative maternal deaths. Based on the simple binary logistic regression analysis, age, number of ANC attendance, mode of delivery, place of delivery, abortive outcomes, and obstetric sepsis were significantly associated with HIV status among maternal deaths.
Among women who experienced maternal death, those aged over 30 years had higher odds of being HIV-positive than those in the younger age category (COR = 2.71, 95% CI: 1.02–7.21). Women with no antenatal care attendance had higher odds of being HIV-positive than those with 5–8 visits (COR = 12.75, 95% CI: 1.31–124.37). The odds of HIV positivity were also higher among women with normal vaginal delivery than among those with caesarean delivery (COR = 6.12, 95% CI: 1.94–19.28), and among women who delivered at home than among those who delivered in hospital (COR = 30.00, 95% CI: 3.68–244.45) (Table 1).
Regarding clinical conditions, HIV-positive women who experienced death had 9.1 times higher odds of having a history of abortive outcomes (COR: 9.12, 95% CI: 1.88–44.27) and 4.6 times higher odds of developing obstetric sepsis (COR: 4.57, 95% CI: 1.15–18.20), compared with HIV-negative women (Table 2).
This study compared demographic, obstetric, and clinical characteristics among HIV-positive and HIV-negative women who experienced maternal death in four referral hospitals in Namibia between 2018 and 2022. The findings reveal important differences in maternal mortality patterns according to HIV status and highlight areas requiring targeted interventions to reduce preventable maternal deaths. However, the high proportion of missing data for key HIV-related clinical variables (viral load, CD4 count, Isoniazid prophylaxis) limited our ability to examine whether these factors influenced outcomes. This highlights the need for improved completeness of medical records and strengthened data quality assurance in maternal death surveillance systems.
Maternal age was associated with HIV status among women who experienced maternal death, with higher odds of HIV positivity among women aged over 30 years than among those in the younger age category. This finding is consistent with evidence from sub-Saharan Africa indicating that HIV-related maternal mortality is more prevalent among older women of reproductive age [6], possibly reflecting longer duration of HIV infection, cumulative immune compromise, and the presence of co-existing medical conditions. These findings suggest the need for enhanced monitoring and comprehensive risk assessment among older pregnant women living with HIV.
Antenatal care attendance differed significantly between the two groups. HIV-positive women who died were more likely to have had no antenatal care visits compared with HIV-negative women. The findings from this study contradict a study conducted in Lesotho where there was no difference in ANC attendance between HIV positive and HIV negative women [20]. Antenatal care provides an important opportunity for early HIV diagnosis, initiation and monitoring of antiretroviral therapy, screening for anaemia and infections, and early identification of pregnancy-related complications. The lower utilisation of antenatal care among HIV-positive women may reflect persistent barriers such as stigma, fear of disclosure, poor accessibility of services, long waiting times, and socioeconomic challenges as reported in some studies [21]. Improving antenatal care uptake and retention among women with HIV infection should be considered a potentially important strategy for improving maternal outcomes, based on evidence from this and other studies.
The study also identified significant differences in place and mode of delivery. HIV-positive women were substantially more likely to have delivered at home, whereas HIV-negative women more commonly delivered in health facilities. Similarly to a study conducted in Kenya, which found that some HIV positive women deliver at home and that the correlation of home delivery includes a history of previous home delivery and being on highly active antiretroviral therapy, among others [22].
Home deliveries may increase the likelihood of delayed recognition and management of obstetric complications, thereby increasing the risk of maternal death. This finding suggests that despite the widespread availability of maternal health services, some women living with HIV continue to face barriers to accessing facility-based care. Community-based interventions, strengthened referral systems, and targeted health education may help improve institutional delivery rates among women living with HIV.
Regarding mode of delivery, HIV-negative women were more likely to undergo caesarean section, while HIV-positive women more frequently delivered vaginally. This difference may reflect variations in obstetric indications, timing of presentation, access to emergency obstetric care, or clinical decision-making practices. However, some researchers stated that Caesarean section is effective in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV [23]. Further research is needed to explore whether differences in access to surgical obstetric care contribute to maternal outcomes among women living with HIV.
Significant differences were also observed in abortive outcomes and obstetric sepsis. HIV-positive women who died were significantly more likely to have experienced abortive outcomes and obstetric sepsis than HIV-negative women. These findings are consistent with existing literature demonstrating that HIV infection increases susceptibility to severe infections due to impaired immune function [15]. Obstetric sepsis remains a leading direct cause of maternal mortality globally, and the increased burden observed among HIV-positive women underscores the importance of strengthening infection prevention, early diagnosis, prompt treatment, and postpartum follow-up. Enhanced screening and management of reproductive tract infections during pregnancy may also reduce the risk of adverse outcomes.
Although no statistically significant differences were observed for hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, obstetric haemorrhage, tuberculosis, respiratory disease, cardiac disease, or hepatic conditions, these conditions remained important contributors to maternal mortality in both groups. These finding highlights that while HIV status influences specific pathways leading to maternal death, common obstetric emergencies continue to affect all pregnant women regardless of HIV status. The absence of significant differences in hypertensive disorders between HIV-positive and HIV-negative maternal deaths may reflect the benefits of widespread antiretroviral therapy coverage and improved HIV management. Emerging evidence suggests that long-term antiretroviral therapy may mitigate some adverse maternal health outcomes previously associated with HIV infection [24]. However, continued surveillance is needed to better understand the interaction between HIV infection, antiretroviral therapy, and pregnancy-related complications. Similarly, strengthening emergency obstetric and newborn care services remains an important priority, as obstetric complications affected women regardless of HIV status in this sample.
It is important to emphasise that this study describes associations observed among women who died and does not establish causality. HIV status may be associated with other factors such as socioeconomic status, access to healthcare, or health-seeking behaviours that could explain the observed differences. Furthermore, the direction of causality cannot be determined from cross-sectional data. For example, the association between lack of antenatal care and HIV-positive status could reflect that women who do not access antenatal care are less likely to be tested and diagnosed with HIV, rather than HIV status causing lack of antenatal care attendance.
Several limitations should be considered when interpreting these findings. The retrospective design relied on routinely collected maternal death records, which were subject to incomplete documentation and missing data. The exclusion of incomplete records may have introduced selection bias. This resulted in the exclusion of 28 (27%) of the initially identified records. Furthermore, the relatively small sample size limited statistical power and precluded multivariable analyses to identify independent predictors of maternal death. Despite these limitations, the study provides valuable evidence from Namibia’s Maternal Death Surveillance and Response system and contributes to the limited literature comparing characteristics of HIV-positive and HIV-negative maternal deaths in the country.
The findings reveal differences in the characteristics of HIV-positive and HIV-negative women who experienced maternal death, with HIV-positive women showing higher proportions of no antenatal care, home delivery, abortive outcomes, and obstetric sepsis. These observed differences may indicate areas where HIV-positive women face particular challenges and where targeted interventions could be explored. These factors could represent important opportunities for intervention within maternal and HIV care programmes.
The small sample size (n=77) limited statistical power, and multivariable regression analysis was not performed. The crude odds ratios are unadjusted and require cautious interpretation because of potential confounding and wide confidence intervals. The reported home-delivery odds ratio of 30.0 illustrates the large estimated association and substantial imprecision. Given the multiple comparisons performed, statistically significant findings are hypothesis-generating rather than confirmatory. Larger studies that include surviving women are needed to investigate independent risk factors for maternal death among women living with HIV.
Another important limitation of this study’s design is that it only includes women who died, making it impossible to identify factors that predict maternal mortality. The observed associations between HIV status and characteristics such as lack of antenatal care, home delivery, and obstetric sepsis should be interpreted as differences among women who died, not as risk factors for death. Thus, without a comparison group of surviving women, we cannot determine whether these characteristics are more common among HIV-positive women who die than among HIV-positive women who survive, or whether they increase the risk of death among HIV-positive women. Therefore, the findings should be understood by describing patterns among maternal deaths rather than identifying determinants of maternal mortality.
Finally, the study was conducted in four referral hospitals, which may not be representative of other facilities or community settings in Namibia. The findings may not be generalisable to primary care facilities or to regions not served by these hospitals.
This study identified important differences between HIV-positive and HIV-negative maternal deaths in Namibia. Among maternal deaths in this sample, HIV-positive women were more likely than HIV-negative women to have had no antenatal care attendance, delivered at home, experienced abortive outcomes, and developed obstetric sepsis. These observed differences suggest areas where women living with HIV may be particularly vulnerable to adverse outcomes, although the cross-sectional nature of the data precludes causal inference. The study design (retrospective cross-sectional audit of maternal death records) only allows comparison of characteristics between HIV-positive and HIV-negative women who died. It cannot determine risk factors or predictors of mortality because there are no comparison group of women who survived.
The results highlight the need for strengthened integration of maternal health and HIV services, improved access to quality antenatal care, promotion of facility-based deliveries, and enhanced prevention and management of maternal infections. Addressing these gaps could substantially reduce maternal mortality among women living with HIV and contribute to achieving national and global maternal health targets.
Implications for Practice and Policy
The findings have several implications for maternal and HIV programmes in Namibia, which include the following:
What is already known about the topic
What this study adds
The authors acknowledge the University of Namibia for creating an enabling academic environment and the Government of the Republic of Namibia for its institutional support. Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the University of Namibia (UNAM) and the Ministry of Health and Social Services’ ethical committee, as well as the regional health directors of the selected regions, to ensure compliance with established ethical guidelines.
Conceptualization: Claudia Mbapaha
Data curation: Claudia Mbapaha
Formal analysis: Yoseph Worku
Methodology: Yoseph Worku, Mulenga Ester
Software: Yoseph Worku
Investigation: Claudia Mbapaha
Project administration: Hans Justus Amukugo
Supervision: Hans Justus Amukugo, Mulenga Ester
Visualization: Hans Justus Amukugo
Validation: Mulenga Ester
Writing – original draft: Claudia Mbapaha
Writing – review & editing: Yoseph Worku, Hans Justus Amukugo, Mulenga Ester
| Variable | HIV-Positive n (%) | HIV-Negative n (%) | COR with 95% CI | P value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maternal age (years) | ||||
| ≤30 | 9 (32.1) | 19 (67.9) | 1 (Reference) | |
| >30 | 27 (56.3) | 21 (43.8) | 2.71 (1.02, 7.21) | 0.045* |
| Gravidity | ||||
| 1–3 | 22 (47.8) | 24 (52.2) | 1.05 (0.42, 2.63) | 0.921 |
| 4+ | 14 (46.7) | 16 (53.3) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Parity | ||||
| 1–3 | 22 (44.9) | 27 (55.1) | 0.41 (0.12, 1.37) | 0.140 |
| 4+ | 10 (66.7) | 5 (33.3) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Marital status | ||||
| Single | 29 (46.8) | 33 (53.2) | 1.23 (0.35, 4.30) | 0.745 |
| Married/ Widowed | 5 (41.7) | 7 (58.3) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Antenatal care attendance | ||||
| 0 | 17 (68.0) | 8 (32.0) | 12.75 (1.31, 124.37) | 0.028* |
| 1–4 | 16 (43.2) | 21 (56.8) | 4.57 (0.50, 41.87) | 0.179 |
| 5–8 | 1 (14.3) | 6 (85.7) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Gestational age | ||||
| <20 | 7 (70.0) | 3 (30.0) | 4.00 (0.77, 20.68) | 0.098 |
| 21–35 | 17 (44.7) | 21 (55.3) | 1.39 (0.45, 4.30) | 0.570 |
| >36 | 7 (36.8) | 12 (63.2) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Haemoglobin (in gm%) | ||||
| <10 | 19 (51.4) | 18 (48.6) | 1.90 (0.53, 6.76) | 0.322 |
| 11–12 | 9 (50.0) | 9 (50.0) | 1.80 (0.43, 7.53) | 0.421 |
| >12 | 5 (35.7) | 9 (64.3) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Delivery mode | ||||
| Normal Vaginal Delivery | 29 (61.7) | 18 (38.3) | 6.12 (1.94, 19.28) | 0.002* |
| C-section | 5 (20.8) | 19 (79.2) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Delivery place | ||||
| Home | 15 (93.8) | 1 (6.3) | 30.00 (3.68, 244.45) | 0.001* |
| Hospital | 19 (33.3) | 38 (66.7) | 1 (Reference) | |
| COR: Crude odds ratio; CI: Confidence interval *Significant at the 0.05 level There were a total of 37 HIV-positive women and 40 HIV-negative women in the study. However, some of the variables had missing or unrecorded data. Consequently, the totals for individual variables may not sum to 37 among HIV-positive women or to 40 among HIV-negative women. | ||||
| Variable | HIV-Positive n (%) | HIV-Negative n (%) | COR with 95% CI | P value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hypertensive disorder | ||||
| Yes | 6 (40.0) | 9 (60.0) | 0.67 (0.21, 2.10) | 0.488 |
| No | 31 (50.0) | 31 (50.0) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Abortive outcomes | ||||
| Yes | 12 (85.7) | 2 (14.3) | 9.12 (1.88, 44.27) | 0.006* |
| No | 25 (39.7) | 38 (60.3) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Obstetric sepsis | ||||
| Yes | 10 (76.9) | 3 (23.1) | 4.57 (1.15, 18.20) | 0.031* |
| No | 27 (42.2) | 37 (57.8) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Obstetric haemorrhage | ||||
| Yes | 9 (34.6) | 17 (65.4) | 0.44 (0.16, 1.16) | 0.095 |
| No | 28 (54.9) | 23 (45.1) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Cardiac condition | ||||
| Yes | 2 (33.3) | 4 (66.7) | 0.51 (0.09, 2.99) | 0.459 |
| No | 35 (49.3) | 36 (50.7) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Hepatic condition | ||||
| Yes | 6 (40.0) | 9 (60.0) | 0.67 (0.21, 2.10) | 0.488 |
| No | 31 (50.0) | 31 (50.0) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Respiratory condition | ||||
| Yes | 10 (62.5) | 6 (37.5) | 2.10 (0.68, 6.50) | 0.199 |
| No | 27 (44.3) | 34 (55.7) | 1 (Reference) | |
| Tuberculosis | ||||
| Yes | 5 (71.4) | 2 (28.6) | 2.97 (0.54, 16.35) | 0.211 |
| No | 32 (45.7) | 38 (54.3) | 1 (Reference) | |
| COR: Crude odds ratio; CI: Confidence interval *Significant at the 0.05 level | ||||