Research | Open Access | Volume 9 (3): Article  147 | Published: 18 Sep 2026

Factors associated with acute kidney injury in severe malaria cases in Kiffa, Mauritania

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Table 1: Distribution of patients according to socio-demographic and clinical characteristics

Table 2: Relationship between acute kidney injury and sociodemographic and clinical factors among patients with severe malaria

Table 3: Factors associated with acute kidney injury among patients with severe malaria: multivariable logistic regression

Keywords

  • Severe malaria
  • Acute Kidney Injury
  • Complications

Boushab Mohamed Boushab1,&, Sid’Ahmed Soufiane2,3, Kébé Hasmiou2, Moctar Diop4, Sidi El-Wafi Baba3,5

1Internal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Kiffa Hospital Center, Assaba, Mauritania, 2Infectious Diseases, Nouakchott Hospital Center, Nouakchott, Mauritania, 3Faculty of Medicine, University of Nouakchott, Nouakchott, Mauritania, 4Hemodialysis Unit, Military Hospital of Nouakchott, Nouakchott, Mauritania, 5Internal Medicine, Nouakchott Hospital Center, Nouakchott, Mauritania

&Corresponding author: Boushab Mohamed Boushab, Internal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Kiffa Hospital Centre, Assaba, Mauritania, E-mail: bboushab@gmail.com, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8932-1027

Received: 07 Jul 2025, Accepted: 17  Sep 2026, Published: 18 Sep 2026

Domain: Infectious Disease Epidemiology

Keywords: Severe malaria, Acute kidney injury, complications

©Boushab Mohamed Boushab et al. Journal of Interventional Epidemiology and Public Health (ISSN: 2664-2824). This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution International 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Cite this article: Boushab Mohamed Boushab et al., Factors associated with acute kidney injury in severe malaria cases in Kiffa, Mauritania. Journal of Interventional Epidemiology and Public Health. 2026; 9(3):147. https://doi.org/10.37432/jieph-d-25-00160

Abstract

Introduction: Malaria remains a major public health problem worldwide. In Mauritania, data on acute kidney injury (AKI) in patients with severe malaria are scarce. This study determined the prevalence of AKI and identified associated factors among indigenous patients hospitalized with severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria.
Methods: This retrospective study was conducted from August 1, 2016, to August 31, 2024, in the Internal Medicine and Infectious Diseases Department of Kiffa Regional Hospital, Mauritania. All indigenous patients admitted with severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria during the study period were included.
Results: Among 10,923 hospitalised patients, 11% (1,168/10,923) tested positive for malaria, and 18.6% (217/1,168) of these had severe malaria, of whom 35.5% (77/217) developed acute kidney injury (AKI). The study population was predominantly female (54.4%) and from rural areas (61.3%), with a mean age of 37.2 years. In multivariate analysis, anemia (aOR: 2.45, 95%CI: 1.20–4.99), severe dehydration (aOR: 2.10, 95%CI: 1.01–4.36), diarrhea (aOR: 3.85, 95%CI: 1.90–7.79), hypotension (aOR: 4.55, 95%CI: 2.15–9.62), and acute pulmonary edema (aOR: 6.70, 95%CI: 1.28–35.02) were independently associated with AKI, whereas vomiting (aOR: 0.35, 95%CI: 0.15–0.80) indicating lower odds of AKI, although this association should not be interpreted as a causal protective effect. Age, sex, seizures, and fever were not significantly associated with AKI.
Conclusion: Acute kidney injury is a common and serious complication of severe malaria, affecting more than one-third of patients. Anaemia, severe dehydration, diarrhoea, hypotension, and acute pulmonary oedema are key independent risk factors, while vomiting showed an inverse association with AKI, but this should not be interpreted as a causal protective effect. Early identification and management of these high-risk patients are crucial to prevent AKI and improve clinical outcomes, particularly in resource-limited, malaria-endemic settings.

Introduction

Malaria remains a major public health concern in Mauritania, particularly in the southern Sahelian regions where Plasmodium falciparum transmission is seasonal, typically occurring from July to November. In these regions, malaria accounts for a significant proportion of healthcare use, being the leading cause of outpatient visits (25%), hospital admissions (35.5%), and deaths (39%) [1,2]. The clinical spectrum of malaria ranges from asymptomatic infections to uncomplicated cases characterised by nonspecific symptoms such as fever, headache, and myalgia. However, in its severe form, malaria can lead to life-threatening complications including severe anaemia, coma, metabolic acidosis, and acute kidney injury (AKI) [3].

AKI refers to a sudden decline in kidney function that impairs the body’s ability to filter waste products, balance electrolytes, and regulate fluid homeostasis. Its severity and outcomes vary, but incomplete recovery can result in long-term renal and systemic consequences. The reported prevalence of AKI ranges widely from less than 1% to over 60% due to differences in populations studied and the criteria used for diagnosis [4]. In low- and middle-income countries, environmental and infectious factors, including malaria, are important contributors to the burden of AKI.

In the context of severe P. falciparum malaria, AKI is a well-documented and serious complication that significantly increases the risk of death. The condition can result from multiple causes, often classified into prerenal (e.g., hypovolemia), intrinsic renal (e.g., infection, nephrotoxins), and postrenal (e.g., obstruction) origins [5]. Before the establishment of standardized KDIGO criteria, the frequency and impact of AKI were likely underestimated, especially in endemic areas [6].

Despite growing recognition of malaria-related AKI, little is known about the factors that predispose patients to this complication, particularly in rural West African settings. The present study seeks to identify clinical predictors associated with AKI in patients hospitalized for severe malaria at Kiffa Hospital, Assaba Region, Mauritania.

Methods

Study setting, design, and period
We conducted a retrospective analytic study from August 1, 2016, to August 31, 2024, in the Internal Medicine and Infectious Diseases Department of Kiffa Hospital, located in the Assaba region, southeastern Mauritania. Kiffa Hospital is a referral centre serving a predominantly rural population.

Study population and eligibility criteria
All patients aged 15 years and older hospitalised for severe malaria during the study period were eligible. Inclusion required meeting the World Health Organization (WHO) criteria for severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria. We excluded patients with chronic kidney disease, uncomplicated malaria, incomplete or missing medical records, and those transferred to another facility before full clinical evaluation.

Sample size and sampling
Given the retrospective design, all eligible patients admitted with severe malaria during the study period were included. No formal sample size calculation was performed.

Study variables and Operational definitions of acute kidney injury (AKI)
Dependent variable: Presence or absence of AKI according to KDIGO criteria.
Independent variables: Sociodemographic data (age, sex, residence), medical history (hypertension, diabetes, comorbidities), clinical signs (fever, neurological disturbances, respiratory distress, anaemia, dehydration, hypotension), laboratory parameters (creatinine, urea, haemoglobin, glucose, potassium), therapeutic interventions (fluid therapy, antimalarial treatment, dialysis), and outcomes (length of stay, complications, mortality, recovery).

AKI was defined and classified according to the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) criteria as requiring at least one of the following: an increase in serum creatinine by ≥0.3 mg/dL (≥26.5 μmol/L) within 48 hours; an increase in serum creatinine to ≥1.5 times baseline within 7 days; urine output <0.5 mL/kg/h for 6 hours or longer.

Baseline serum creatinine was defined as the lowest creatinine value recorded within the first seven days of hospitalisation. When baseline creatinine was not available, it was estimated using the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) equation, assuming a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of 75 mL/min/1.73 m², in line with recommended practices. Urine output data were extracted from patient records when documented; however, these data were often incomplete. Consequently, creatinine-based criteria were primarily used for AKI diagnosis.

Management of patients
All patients received standard treatment for severe malaria according to national guidelines, including intravenous artesunate as first-line therapy and quinine in some cases. Supportive care included fluid resuscitation, blood transfusion when indicated, and symptomatic management. Indications for dialysis were based on persistent oliguria/anuria, severe hyperkalemia, metabolic acidosis, or uremic symptoms

Data collection
Data were retrospectively collected from hospitalization records using a structured data extraction sheet designed based on WHO and KDIGO guidelines. Three trained nurses extracted the data under the supervision of the lead investigator. Ambiguous or missing data were clarified in consultation with hospital staff when possible. All patient data were anonymized and entered into Microsoft Excel® 2021, then exported to SAS® 9.4 for statistical analysis.

Data management and analysis
Data were checked for completeness and consistency. Descriptive statistics summarised categorical variables as frequencies and percentages and continuous variables as means ± standard deviations or medians with interquartile ranges, as appropriate. Associations between independent variables and AKI were explored using univariate logistic regression to estimate crude odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Variables with p-values <0.20 in univariate analyses were included in a multivariate logistic regression model to identify independent predictors of AKI. The final model was adjusted for potential confounders, including age and sex. Model fit was assessed using the Hosmer–Lemeshow test. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

Ethical considerations
This study received ethical approval from the Kiffa Hospital Ethics and Scientific Committee under reference number CS-CHK/04/2023 (April 2023). As the study was retrospective, individual patient consent was not required. Patient confidentiality was strictly preserved throughout data handling and analysis.

Results

Among the 10,923 patients hospitalised during the study period, 1,168 (11%) tested positive for malaria using a rapid diagnostic test (RDT). Of these, 217 patients (18.6%) met the World Health Organization (WHO) criteria for severe malaria, and among them, 77 cases (35.5%) developed acute kidney injury (AKI). The study population was predominantly female (54.4%; 118/217) and primarily from rural areas (61.3%; 133/217). The mean age was 37.2 years (±19.0), with a median of 34 years and a modal age of 15 years. The mean time to hospital admission was 7.4 days (±2.4), while the average length of hospital stay was 3.4 days (±1.6). The most common clinical manifestations were fever (87.1%), neurological disturbances such as seizures (61.8%) and altered consciousness (57.1%), followed by vomiting (58.1%), diarrhoea (49.8%), dehydration (65.0%), and hypotension (56.2%; Table 1).

Univariate analysis revealed several factors significantly associated with the development of AKI. Anaemia was more frequent among patients with AKI than those without (71.4% vs. 37.1%; OR = 3.67; 95% CI: 2.00–6.74; p < 0.0001). Severe dehydration was also significantly associated with AKI (79.2% vs. 57.1%; OR = 2.92; 95% CI: 1.52–5.63; p = 0.0011), as was diarrhoea (75.3% vs. 35.7%; OR = 5.52; 95% CI: 2.94–10.38; p < 0.0001) and hypotension (71.4% vs. 28.6%; OR = 6.20; 95% CI: 3.28–11.71; p < 0.0001). Acute pulmonary oedema was observed more frequently in the AKI group compared to the non-AKI group (16.9% vs. 1.4%; OR = 13.48; 95% CI: 2.92–62.28; p < 0.0001). Hyperkalemia was present exclusively in patients with AKI (18.2%; p < 0.0001), but odds ratio estimation was not possible due to the absence of hyperkalemia cases in the non-AKI group. Conversely, vomiting was less common among AKI patients, showing an inverse association with AKI (14.3% vs. 42.8%; OR = 0.22; 95% CI: 0.10–0.49; p < 0.0001; Table 2).

In the multivariate logistic regression analysis, several factors were independently associated with acute kidney injury (AKI) in patients with severe malaria. Anaemia (aOR: 2.45, 95% CI: 1.20–4.99, p = 0.013), severe dehydration (aOR: 2.10, 95% CI: 1.01–4.36, p = 0.046), diarrhoea (aOR: 3.85, 95% CI: 1.90–7.79, p < 0.0001), hypotension (aOR: 4.55; 95%CI: 2.15–9.62, p < 0.0001), and acute pulmonary oedema (aOR: 6.70, 95%CI: 1.28–35.02, p = 0.024) significantly increased the risk of AKI. Interestingly, vomiting was associated with a decreased risk of AKI (aOR: 0.35, 95% CI: 0.15–0.80, p = 0.013). Age, sex, seizures, and fever were not independently associated with AKI in this model (Table 3).

Discussion

Our study highlights a notable prevalence of AKI among patients hospitalised with severe malaria, with a frequency of 35.5%. This finding is consistent with recent reports from sub-Saharan Africa, where the prevalence of AKI in severe malaria cases varies between 24% and 59%, depending on KDIGO criteria and the population characteristics [8–11]. Several factors were significantly associated with AKI in our study, including anaemia, severe dehydration, diarrhoea, hypotension, and acute pulmonary oedema. Anaemia, present in more than 71.4% of patients with AKI, is a well-recognised risk factor, contributing to tissue hypoxia and tubular necrosis [11,12].

Severe dehydration and hypotension impair renal perfusion, leading to prerenal azotemia and ischemic acute tubular necrosis, mechanisms central to the pathophysiology of malaria- associated AKI [3,13]. The strong association between diarrhoea and AKI may be explained by significant hydro-electrolytic losses, leading to severe hypovolemia [3]. This association was also recently reported in Uganda, where diarrhoea was identified as an independent predictor of AKI in children with severe malaria [13].

The relationship between vomiting and AKI warrants particular attention. Vomiting was associated with a reduced risk of AKI, contrary to what might be expected. This finding should not be interpreted as a true protective effect. It may reflect reverse causation or residual confounding, whereby patients presenting with vomiting may have sought medical care earlier, before severe dehydration, diarrhoea, or hypotension developed. Prospective studies with detailed symptom timing are needed to clarify this association. Recent studies suggest that severe vomiting can contribute to AKI through significant fluid losses [14,15].

Previous studies have also identified nephrotoxic drugs, particularly non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), as potential aggravating factors in malaria-associated AKI. A recent study from East Africa reported that NSAID use significantly increased the risk of AKI among children hospitalised with severe malaria [8,13].

Finally, recent evidence highlights that malaria-associated AKI is not limited to the acute phase; It exposes patients to an increased risk of chronic kidney disease, recurrent AKI episodes, and even long-term neurocognitive impairments, especially in children [16]. These findings underscore the need for enhanced post-acute follow-up and a multidisciplinary approach to care.

The study was conducted in a single district hospital, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other healthcare centres across the country. A prospective study design would be preferable, as it typically provides more robust and reliable data compared to retrospective analyses.

Conclusion

This study underscores the importance of acute kidney injury (AKI) as a common and serious complication in malaria in rural Mauritania. Although limited by its single-centre, retrospective design, it demonstrates a high prevalence of AKI, consistent with recent data from sub-Saharan Africa. The associated risk factors identified, including anaemia, severe dehydration, diarrhoea, hypotension, and acute pulmonary oedema, corroborate established pathophysiological mechanisms described in the literature, while the unexpected inverse association observed with vomiting warrants further prospective investigation. These findings emphasise the need for heightened vigilance in managing cases with severe malaria, with particular attention to the prevention, early detection, and timely treatment of AKI risk factors. Moreover, recognition of the risk of long-term renal and neurocognitive sequelae highlights the need for structured post-acute follow-up and a multidisciplinary care approach. Larger prospective studies are warranted to further elucidate these associations and inform context-specific preventive strategies.

What is already known about the topic

  • Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a frequent and severe complication of Plasmodium falciparum malaria.
  • Its early recognition and management are essential to improve patient survival.
  • The prevalence and risk factors of malaria-associated AKI vary across different regions and populations.

What this  study adds

  • Identifies the main clinical predictors of AKI in severe malaria in a rural Mauritanian hospital setting.
  • Highlights the association of severe dehydration with AKI and the unexpected inverse association observed with vomiting.
  • Provides local epidemiological data that may help adapt prevention and management strategies for AKI in malaria-endemic areas.

Competing interest

The authors of this work declare no competing interests.

Funding

The authors did not receive any specific funding for this work.

Authors’ contributions


Conceptualization: Boushab Mohamed Boushab
Data curation: Boushab Mohamed Boushab
Formal analysis: Boushab Mohamed Boushab
Investigation: Boushab Mohamed Boushab
Methodology: Boushab Mohamed Boushab
Project administration: Boushab Mohamed Boushab
Resources: Boushab Mohamed Boushab
Supervision: Boushab Mohamed Boushab
Validation: Boushab Mohamed Boushab
Visualization: Boushab Mohamed Boushab
Writing – original draft: Boushab Mohamed Boushab
Writing – review & editing: Boushab Mohamed Boushab, Sid’Ahmed Soufiane, Hasmiou Kébé, Moctar Diop, Sidi El-Wafi Baba

Tables & Figures

Table 1: Distribution of patients according to socio-demographic and clinical characteristics

VariablesFrequency (n)Percentage (%)
Age (years; mean (sd))37.17±19.03
Sex
    Women11854.4
    Men9945.6
Patients’ origin
    Rural13361.3
    Urban8438.7
Clinical manifestations*
    History of fever9744.7
    Self-medication5826.7
    Fever18987.1
    Severe dehydration14165.0
    Seizures13461.8
    Vomiting12658.1
    Impaired consciousness12457.1
    Hypotension12256.2
    Diarrhoea10849.8
    Anaemia10749.3
    Hypoglycaemia10648.9
    Acute kidney injury7735.5
    Dialysis3013.8
    Jaundice2310.6
    Acute pulmonary oedema156.9
    Hyperkalemia146.5

*multiple options apply

Table 2: Relationship between acute kidney injury and sociodemographic and clinical factors among patients with severe malaria

VariablesAKI (n=77)No AKI (n=140)Odds Ratio (OR)95% Confidence Interval (CI)P-value
Age, years (mean ± SD)37.17 ± 19.0336.91 ± 18.77−−0.91
Sex, female42 (54.5%)76 (54.3%)1.010.58 – 1.740.97
Anaemia55 (71.4%)52 (37.1%)3.672.00 – 6.74<0.0001
History of fever35 (45.5%)62 (44.3%)1.050.61 – 1.810.8873
Self-medication55 (71.4%)104 (74.3%)0.850.45 – 1.590.6491
Impaired consciousness43 (55.8%)81 (57.9%)0.930.53 – 1.620.7743
Severe dehydration61 (79.2%)80 (57.1%)2.921.52 – 5.630.0011
Seizures34 (44.2%)43 (30.7%)1.750.96 – 3.170.067
Diarrhoea58 (75.3%)50 (35.7%)5.522.94 – 10.38<0.0001
Fever71 (92.2%)118 (84.3%)2.510.83 – 7.540.0958
Hypoglycaemia42 (54.5%)64 (45.7%)1.440.83 – 2.480.2131
Hypotension55 (71.4%)40 (28.6%)6.203.28 – 11.71<0.0001
Jaundice10 (13.0%)13 (9.3%)1.460.61 – 3.480.3970
Acute pulmonary oedema13 (16.9%)2 (1.4%)13.482.92 – 62.28<0.0001
Vomiting11 (14.3%)60 (42.8%)0.220.10 – 0.49<0.0001

Note: Statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05.

Table 3: Factors associated with acute kidney injury among patients with severe malaria: multivariable logistic regression

VariablesAdjusted OR95% CIP-value
Age (per year)1.010.99 – 1.030.25
Female sex1.080.60 – 1.940.80
Anemia2.451.20 – 4.990.013
Severe dehydration2.11.01 – 4.360.046
Seizures1.400.70 – 2.820.34
Diarrhea3.851.90 – 7.79<0.0001
Fever1.650.52 – 5.260.40
Hypotension4.552.15 – 9.62<0.0001
Acute pulmonary edema6.71.28 – 35.020.024
Vomiting0.350.15 – 0.800.013
 

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